MASLOW'S HIERARCHY MODEL

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY MODEL

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Advertising

Abraham (Harold) Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. He is mostly noted today for his proposal of a hierarchy of human needs and is considered the father of humanistic psychology.

Maslow postulated that needs are arranged in a hierarchy in terms of their potency. The lower the need is in the pyramid, the more powerful it is. The higher the need is in the pyramid, the weaker it is.

1. Physiological needs: The base of the pyramid is formed by the physiological needs.
The physiological needs of the organism take first precedence. These consist mainly of:
Excretion
Eating
Sex
Drinking
Sleeping
Shelter
Warmth

If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's physiological needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can control thoughts and behaviours, and can cause people to feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.


2. Safety Needs: With his physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate his behaviour. These needs have to do with man's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as:

Personal security from crime.
Security against company lay-offs.
Health and well-being.
Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts.

3. Love/Belonging/Social needs:
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

friendship.
Sexual intimacy.
Having a supportive and communicative Family.

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group (such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs) or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others.

4. Esteem needs: All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem, inferiority complexes.

5. Cognitive needs: Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them.

6. Aesthetic needs: Based on Maslow's beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-Actualization. Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer.

7. Self-actualization: Is the instinctual need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.

In Maslow's scheme, the final stage of psychological development comes when the individual feels assured that his physiological, security, affiliation and affection, self-respect, and recognition needs have been satisfied. As these become dormant, he becomes filled with a desire to realize all of his potential for being an:
Effective
Creative
Mature human being
8. Transcendence: Maslow also proposed that people who have reached self-actualization will sometimes experience a state he referred to as "transcendence," in which they become aware of not only their own fullest potential, but the fullest potential of human beings at large.

Products/Services/Ideas Vs Needs
1. Biological and Physiological needs - Food and drink adverts, selling houses or mortgages.

2. Safety needs - home security products (alarms, etc), adverts for insurance, home loans and bank or building society adverts.

3. Belongingness and Love needs - dating and match-making services, chat-lines, clubs and membership societies, life-style choices – diet, fashion. Advertisements relating to caring for others such as small children or pets.

4. Esteem needs - Need for attention – beauty products which will make you admired. Cosmetics, fast cars, home improvements, furniture, fashion clothes, drinks, lifestyle products and services. Adverts linked to winning or achievements – often promoted by sports personalities

5. Cognitive needs: Advertisements by travel operators etc.

6. Aesthetic needs: The advertisements relating to the sale of paintings, art, sculpture.

7. Self-Actualization needs - Adverts for expensive furnishings, posh ornaments, Open University, foreign travel sometimes offer the opportunity to find meaning to life. Fast car adverts offer the possibility of control and being the envy of others.

8. Transcendence needs: Advertisements to explore hidden energy and talent. To join different religious groups etc.

Single product targeting multiple products:

A product can be advertised to fulfil multiple needs of Maslow’s pyramid. It’s to the discretion of the copy writer/manufacturer to target which type of need of the target buyers.
Example: Clothes.

Public relations in developing countries

Public relations in developing countries

Towards the end of the twentieth century, the world was less clearly divided into the first world (North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australasia), the second world (communist states including the Soviet Union, China and North Korea) and the third world (underdeveloped or developing countries in Africa, Asia Pacific, the Indian subcontinent).

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990 came the collapse of the Berlin wall, partitioning East and West Germany, the end of Soviet hegemony in the Balkans and the resultant war, and the Soviet Union’s military withdrawal from Afghanistan. There have been many other effects throughout the world based on these after-effects. In Russia, sources of media have increased considerably since the policies of ‘perestroika’ and ‘glasnost’, first developed by President Gorbachev, brought down the Soviet Union and its communist ideology. Nevertheless, PR professionals in Western companies like Coca-Cola spend much of their time communicating with intrusive bureaucratic governments and their employees rather than journalists and consumers.

In China, too, the number of advertising agencies has drastically increased from virtual non-existence in the early 1980s to many tens of

thousands by the mid-1990s. Media structures within countries are affected by the nature of the political system. The independent mass media flourishes under democratic systems but has tended to stagnate and die under communist or theocratic rule. Mass media systems are subject to the nature and structure of regulation, based as they are on political objectives. There are differing degrees of restrictions on media and paid advertising in different countries. The nature of what the press is allowed to report is also subject to national cultures (and authoritarian regimes!).

A good example of the difficulties of adapting PR techniques to different

cultures is probably best exemplified in China. Networking in America, whilst often derided by those most adept at it, is nevertheless a relatively open process. In China, the equivalent, Guanxi, is very different. Whereas networking in the US tends to be public, in China it is more private and secretive. Discussions will take place in closed environments rather than in open ones. Whilst a Chinese person may claim that they have Guanxi (namely, good interpersonal contacts), it is not usually possible to verify this except through trial and error. Whilst US PR mainly uses mass media, Guanxi, by definition, operates as an interpersonal medium. Finally, whilst Guanxi operates through the development of friendly relationships and ties (perhaps what we might call cronyism in the UK), in the US, negotiations are usually more principle-centred. So, we can see a very different culture in operation. Clearly, this style of communication can drastically affect how PR techniques are conducted. Organizing an event would require a very different process in Shanghai as compared to New York or London.

Western companies developing sponsorship programmes in China have tended to target sport, music and arts events because of huge growth in these sectors. Music, particularly, allows young Chinese people freedom to express themselves and so is often linked with fashion, products and lifestyle marketing approaches.

There are three ways of looking at public relations media in developing

Countries. First, there is the dearth of Western-style mass media; secondly, there are the limitations of the existing mass media; and thirdly,

there are the problems, special needs and special techniques of communicating with illiterate people and those, often remotely located, of different ethnic groups, languages, dialects, religions and lifestyles. These

are problems that confront the PRO working in a developing country, or

the PRO of an organization that exports to, or operates in, these countries.

Nevertheless, PR professionals do operate in these countries and lifestyles are changing as fast as these countries’ economies can develop.

Dearth of Western-style mass media

The number and circulation of newspapers, the number of television sets and computers, and number of Internet-connected computers, the number and kind of television viewers, the nature of mobile telephony, and the number of radios and listeners will depend on the following factors:

1. The degree of literacy. This depends on the primary education system on the one hand and adult literacy education on the other.

2. The sophistication of the economy. This will influence the size of the

market, the justification for advertising and the ability for media to be commercially viable. There are several ways of looking at this. A country may depend on a particular crop or mineral, e.g. sugar, cocoa, copper or rubber. If there is a slump in the world market for that product, the country’s economy will suffer. A net exporter may become a net importer so that restrictions will be placed on imports. In some countries, a large number of people may be outside the cash economy (e.g. China) because they are subsistence workers who sell little or no surplus produce.

3. The popularity of television. Community viewing in developing countries has popularized television, but programmes are often shown in the evening, and since it is usually not the custom for women to go out at night, audiences are limited to men. Young people are also likely to be excluded. In the Taliban-controlled Afghanistan of the late 1990s/early 2000s, cinemas were closed down and music was banned.

4. The quality of broadcast material. Programme material is usually of poor quality. Videotape is expensive, studios have limited options.

Defense Public Relations

Public Communications Worldwide is an integrated marketing communications firm located in Garden Grove, California. PC/W is currently celebrating its 50th year in business, buoyed by its philosophy that sound business strategy merged with a strong dose of emerging technology is the key to achieving long-term client satisfaction. With an affiliate network that spans the globe, PC/W is a rare breed of boutique agency with its balanced mix of domestic and international clients.

Public Communications Worldwide offers a portfolio of products and services that encompass the full scope of client needs in the fast-paced 21st century. Its trademark of traditional PR and marketing techniques coupled with new media initiatives has resulted in numerous prestigious awards and consistent recognition as a PR industry leader.

PC/W has a strong client base in the consumer electronics, aerospace and defense, high technology, manufacturing, Internet and green initiatives arenas, with clients who are recognized as category leaders in their respective niches. PC/W prides itself on the long-term relationships established with our customers that brings stability, continuity, perspective and innovation to our client's initiatives. Whether an ad page in a specialized industry magazine or a multilingual launch of a new product or service, PC/W sets high professional standards that we strive to uphold on a daily basis.

PC/W's team is comprised of specialists with expertise in areas specific to our clients' needs, products and services. Our multidisciplinary approach allows us to meld successful techniques from a variety of areas to give our clients greater flexibility and reach to influence new and established markets

TYPES OF WEBSITES

TYPES OF WEBSITES

A website (Web site or simply site) is a collection of related web pages containing images, videos or other digital assets. A website is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network through an Internet address also called URL.

History

The World Wide Web (WWW) was created in 1989 by CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee.  On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone. Before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as file transfer protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a simple directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as plain text files without formatting, or were encoded in word processor formats.

Types of websites

There are many varieties of websites, each specializing in a particular type of content or use, and they may be arbitrarily classified in any number of ways. A few such classifications might include:

Basic types of websites on the internet

Commercial Website
The purpose of this type of website is to sell products or services. Commercial websites are used for promoting a business or service and are among the most common type of website on the internet. The Internet address often ends with .com.

Personal Website
The purpose of this type of website is to provide information about an individual or group. This type of website is run by an individual or a small group (such as a family) that contains information or any content that the individual wishes to include. The Internet address has a variety of endings.
Organizational Website
The purpose of this type of website is to advocate an individuals opinion or a group’s point of view. A website where persons with similar interests communicate with each other, usually by chat or message boards. The Internet address often ends with .org.
Educational Website
The purpose of this type of website is to provide information about an educational establishment or to present information in an educational manner. The Internet address ends in .edu.
Entertainment Website
The purpose of this type of website is to entertain and provide amusement. The Internet address often ends with .com.
News Website
The purpose of this type of website is to provide information about current events, dedicated to dispensing news and commentary. The Internet address often ends with .com.
Blog
A website that is used to log online readings or to post online diaries; may include discussion forums or chat rooms. The Internet address has a variety of endings.

Hybrid Website
Many websites are a mixture of types. For example, a business web site may promote the businesses products, but may also host informative documents, such as white papers or provide news for it's visitors. Remember, information is the soul of the internet and if used wisely articles and informational pieces are a good hook to bring in visitors.

There are also numerous sub-categories to the ones listed above. For example, a fan site may be a vanity site on which the administrator is paying homage to a celebrity. Another example would be a hobby site where the webmaster shares their knowledge with other like minded individuals and through forums or chat rooms creates a dialogue with them.

Some websites act as vehicles to communicate with other people via web-chat or in the form of a blog. These personal sites are among the most popular on the web.
    Many business websites have the appearance of brochures. They are simple and without frills, communicating some simple message or product.
   Large websites are constrained by architectural limits (e.g. the computing power dedicated to the website).

   Very large websites, such as Yahoo!, Microsoft, Google and most other very large sites employ several servers and load balancing equipment, such as Cisco Content Services.

URL: Uniform Resource Locator

Abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator, the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web. The first part of the address is called a protocol identifier and it indicates what protocol to use, and the second part is called a resource name and it specifies the IP address or the domain name where the resource is located. The protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a colon and two forward slashes.

For example, the two URLs below point to two different files at the domain pcwebopedia.com. The first specifies an executable file that should be fetched using the FTP protocol; the second specifies a Web page that should be fetched using the HTTP protocol.

VIDEO CONFERENCING

VIDEO CONFERENCING

Videoconference or Video Conference (video-teleconference) is a set of interactive telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video and audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware.

Videoconferencing differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference rather than individuals. It is an intermediate form of video telephony, first deployed commercially by AT&T during the early 1970s using their Picture phone technology.

The components required for a videoconferencing system include:

• Video input : video camera or webcam
• Video output: computer monitor , television or projector
• Audio input: microphones, CD/DVD player, cassette player, or any other source of PreAmp audio outlet.
• Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display device or telephone
• Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet

There are basically two kinds of videoconferencing systems:

1.    Dedicated systems have all required components packaged into a single piece of equipment, usually a console with a high quality remote controlled video camera. These cameras can be controlled at a distance to pan left and right, tilt up and down, and zoom. They became known as PTZ cameras. The console contains all electrical interfaces, the control computer, and the software or hardware-based codec. Omni directional microphones are connected to the console, as well as a TV monitor with loudspeakers and/or a video projector. There are several types of dedicated videoconferencing devices:

1.    Large group videoconferencing are non-portable, large, more expensive devices used for large rooms and auditoriums.

2.    Small group videoconferencing are non-portable or portable, smaller, less expensive devices used for small meeting rooms.

3.    Individual videoconferencing are usually portable devices, meant for single users, have fixed cameras, microphones and loudspeakers integrated into the console.

2.    Desktop systems are add-ons (hardware boards, usually) to normal PCs, transforming them into videoconferencing devices. A range of different cameras and microphones can be used with the board, which contains the necessary codec and transmission interfaces. Most of the desktops systems work with the H.323 standard. Videoconferences carried out via dispersed PCs are also known as e-meetings.

Problems:

1.    Eye Contact: Eye contact plays a large role in conversational turn-taking, perceived attention and intent, and other aspects of group communication. While traditional telephone conversations give no eye contact cues, many videoconferencing systems are arguably worse in that they provide an incorrect impression that the remote interlocutor is avoiding eye contact. Some telepresence systems have cameras located in the screens that reduce the amount of parallax observed by the users. This issue is also being addressed through research that generates a synthetic image with eye contact using stereo reconstruction.
Telcordia Technologies, formerly Bell Communications Research, owns a patent for eye-to-eye videoconferencing using rear projection screens with the video camera behind it, evolved from a 1960s U.S. military system that provided videoconferencing services between the White House and various other government and military facilities. This technique eliminates the need for special cameras or image processing.

2.     Appearance Consciousness: A second psychological problem with videoconferencing is being on camera, with the video stream possibly even being recorded. The burden of presenting an acceptable on-screen appearance is not present in audio-only communication. Early studies by Alphonse Chapani, found that the addition of video actually impaired communication, possibly because of the consciousness of being on camera.

3.    Signal latency: The information transport of digital signals in many steps need time. In a telecommunicated conversation, an increased latency larger than about 150-300ms becomes noticeable and is soon observed as unnatural and distracting. Therefore, next to a stable large bandwidth, a small total round-trip time is another major technical requirement for the communication channel for interactive videoconferencing.

Impact

·       Impact on sign language communications

·       Impact on the general public

·       21st Century improvements

·       Present day usage

·       Impact on education

·       Impact on medicine and health

·       Impact on business

·       Impact on law

·       Impact on media relations

Impact on the general public:

High speed Internet connectivity has become more widely available at a reasonable cost and the cost of video capture and display technology has decreased. Consequently, personal videoconferencing systems based on a webcam, personal computer system, software compression and broadband Internet connectivity have become affordable to the general public. Also, the hardware used for this technology has continued to improve in quality, and prices have dropped dramatically. The availability of freeware (often as part of chat programs) has made software based videoconferencing accessible to many.

For over a century, futurists have envisioned a future where telephone conversations will take place as actual face-to-face encounters with video as well as audio. Sometimes it is simply not possible or practical to have face-to-face meetings with two or more people. Sometimes a telephone conversation or conference call is adequate. Other times, an e-mail exchanges are adequate. However, videoconferencing adds another possible alternative, and can be considered when:

• a live conversation is needed;
• visual information is an important component of the conversation;
• the parties of the conversation can't physically come to the same location; or
• the expense or time of travel is a consideration.

Deaf, hard-of-hearing and mute individuals have a particular interest in the development of affordable high-quality videoconferencing as a means of communicating with each other in sign language. Unlike Video Relay Service, which is intended to support communication between a caller using sign language and another party using spoken language, videoconferencing can be used between two signers.

Mass adoption and use of videoconferencing is still relatively low, with the following often claimed as causes:

• Complexity of systems. Most users are not technical and want a simple interface. In hardware systems an unplugged cord or a flat battery in a remote control is seen as failure, contributing to perceived unreliability which drives users back to traditional meetings. Successful systems are backed by support teams who can pro-actively support and provide fast assistance when required.
• Perceived lack of interoperability: not all systems can readily interconnect, for example ISDN and IP systems require a gateway. Popular software solutions cannot easily connect to hardware systems. Some systems use different standards, features and qualities which can require additional configuration when connecting to dis-similar systems.
• Bandwidth and quality of service: In some countries it is difficult or expensive to get a high quality connection that is fast enough for good-quality video conferencing. Technologies such as ADSL have limited upload speeds and cannot upload and download simultaneously at full speed. As Internet speeds increase higher quality and high definition video conferencing will become more readily available.
• Expense of commercial systems - a well designed system requires a specially designed room and can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to fit out the room with codecs, integration equipment and furniture.
• Participants being self-conscious about being on camera, especially new users and older generations.
• Lack of eye contact (as mentioned in Problems)

For these reasons many hardware systems are often used for internal corporate use only, as they are less likely to run into problems and lose a sale. An alternative is companies that hire out videoconferencing equipped meeting rooms in cities around the world. Customers simply book the rooms and turn up for the meeting - everything else is arranged and support is readily available if anything should go wrong.

Impact on sign language communications:

One of the first demonstrations of the ability for telecommunications to help sign language users communicate with each other occurred when AT&T's videophone (trademarked as the 'Picture phone') was introduced to the public at the 1964 New York World's Fair –two deaf users were able to freely communicate with each other between the fair and another city. Various other organizations, including British Telecom's Martlesham facility and several universities have also conducted extensive research on signing via video telephony. The use of sign language via video telephony was hampered for many years due to the difficulty of using it over regular analogue phone lines coupled with the high cost of better quality data phone lines,^[18] factors which largely disappeared with the advent of high-speed ISDN and IP Internet services in the last decade of the 20th Century.

21st Century improvements

Significant improvements in video call quality of service for the deaf occurred in the United States in 2003 when Sorenson Media Inc. (formerly Sorenson Vision Inc.), a video compression software coding company, developed its VP-100 model stand-alone videophone specifically for the deaf community. It was designed to output its video to the user's television in order to lower the cost of acquisition, and to offer remote control and a powerful video compression codec for unequaled video quality and ease of use with video relay services. Favourable reviews quickly led to its popular usage at educational facilities for the deaf, and from there to the greater deaf community.

Coupled with similar high-quality videophones introduced by other electronics manufacturers, the availability of high speed Internet, and sponsored video relay services authorized by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission in 2002, VRS services for the deaf underwent rapid growth in that country.

Present day usage

A deaf or hard-of-hearing person at his workplace using a VRS to communicate with a hearing person in London.

Using such video equipment in the present day, the deaf, hard-of-hearing and speech-impaired can communicate between themselves and with hearing individuals using sign language. The United States and several other countries compensate companies to provide 'Video Relay Services' (VRS). Telecommunication equipment can be used to talk to others via a sign language interpreter, who uses a conventional telephone at the same time to communicate with the deaf person's party. Video equipment is also used to do on-site sign language translation via Video Remote Interpreting (VRI). The relative low cost and widespread availability of 3G mobile phone technology with video calling capabilities have given deaf and speech-impaired users a greater ability to communicate with the same ease as others. Some wireless operators have even started free sign language gateways.

Sign language interpretation services via VRS or by VRI are useful in the present-day where one of the parties is deaf, hard-of-hearing or speech-impaired (mute). In such cases the interpretation flow is normally within the same principal language, such as French Sign Language (FSL) to spoken French, Spanish Sign Language (SSL) to spoken Spanish, British Sign Language (BSL) to spoken English, and American Sign Language (ASL) also to spoken English (since BSL and ASL are completely distinct), and so on.

A Video Interpreter (V.I.) assisting an on-screen client.

Multilingual sign language interpreters, who can also translate as well across principal languages (such as to and from SSL, to and from spoken English), are also available, albeit less frequently. Such activities involve considerable effort on the part of the translator, since sign languages are distinct natural languages with their own construction, semantics and syntax, different from the aural version of the same principal language.

With video interpreting, sign language interpreters work remotely with live video and audio feeds, so that the interpreter can see the deaf or mute party, and converse with the hearing party, and vice versa. Much like telephone interpreting, video interpreting can be used for situations in which no on-site interpreters are available. However, video interpreting cannot be used for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone. VRI and VRS interpretation requires all parties to have the necessary equipment. Some advanced equipment enables interpreters to remotely control the video camera, in order to zoom in and out or to point the camera toward the party that is signing.

Further information: Sign Language and Sign language interpreting

Impact on education

Videoconferencing provides students with the opportunity to learn by participating in two-way communication forums. Furthermore, teachers and lecturers worldwide can be brought to remote or otherwise isolated educational facilities. Students from diverse communities and backgrounds can come together to learn about one another, although language barriers will continue to persist. Such students are able to explore, communicate, analyze and share information and ideas with one another. Through videoconferencing students can visit other parts of the world to speak with their peers, and visit museums and educational facilities. Such virtual field trips can provide enriched learning opportunities to students, especially those in geographically isolated locations, and to the economically disadvantaged. Small schools can use these technologies to pool resources and provide courses, such as in foreign languages, which could not otherwise be offered.

A few examples of benefits that videoconferencing can provide in campus environments include:

• faculty members keeping in touch with classes while attending conferences;
• guest lecturers brought into classes from other institutions;
• researchers collaborating with colleagues at other institutions on a regular basis without loss of time due to travel;
• schools with multiple campuses collaborating and sharing professors;
• faculty members participating in thesis defenses at other institutions;
• administrators on tight schedules collaborating on budget preparation from different parts of campus;
• faculty committee auditioning scholarship candidates;
• researchers answering questions about grant proposals from agencies or review committees;
• Student interviews with an employers in other cities, and teleseminars.

Impact on medicine and health

Videoconferencing is a highly useful technology for real-time telemedicine and tele-nursing applications, such as diagnosis, consulting, transmission of medical images, etc... With videoconferencing, patients may contact nurses and physicians in emergency or routine situations; physicians and other paramedical professionals can discuss cases across large distances. Rural areas can use this technology for diagnostic purposes, thus saving lives and making more efficient use of health care money. For example, a rural medical center in Ohio, United States, used videoconferencing to successfully cut the number of transfers of sick infants to a hospital 70 miles (110 km) away. This had previously cost nearly $10,000 per transfer.

Special peripherals such as microscopes fitted with digital cameras, videoendoscopes, medical ultrasound imaging devices, otoscopes, etc., can be used in conjunction with videoconferencing equipment to transmit data about a patient.

Impact on business

Videoconferencing can enable individuals in distant locations to participate in meetings on short notice, with time and money savings. Technology such as VoIP can be used in conjunction with desktop videoconferencing to enable low-cost face-to-face business meetings without leaving the desk, especially for businesses with widespread offices. The technology is also used for telecommuting, in which employees work from home. One research report based on a sampling of 1,800 corporate employees showed that, as of June 2010, 54% of the respondents with access to video conferencing used it “all of the time” or “frequently”.

Videoconferencing is also currently being introduced on online networking websites, in order to help businesses form profitable relationships quickly and efficiently without leaving their place of work. This has been leveraged by banks to connect busy banking professionals with customers in various locations using video banking technology.

Although videoconferencing has frequently proven its value, research has shown that some non-managerial employees prefer not to use it due to several factors, including anxiety. Some such anxieties can be avoided if managers use the technology as part of the normal course of business.

Researchers also find that attendees of business and medical videoconferences must work harder to interpret information delivered during a conference than they would if they attended face-to-face. They recommend that those coordinating videoconferences make adjustments to their conferencing procedures and equipment.

Impact on law

In the United States, videoconferencing has allowed testimony to be used for an individual who is unable or prefers not to attend the physical legal settings, or would be subjected to severe psychological stress in doing so, however there is a controversy on the use of testimony by foreign or unavailable witnesses via video transmission, regarding the violation of the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.

In a military investigation in State of North Carolina, Afghan witnesses have testified via videoconferencing.

In Hall County, Georgia, videoconferencing systems are used for initial court appearances. The systems link jails with court rooms, reducing the expenses and security risks of transporting prisoners to the courtroom.

The U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA), which oversees the largest administrative judicial system in the world, under its Office of Disability Adjudication and Review (ODAR) has made extensive use of video teleconferencing (VTC) to conduct hearings at remote locations. In FY 2009, SSA conducted 86,320 VTC hearings, a 55% increase over FY 2008. In August 2010, the SSA opened its fifth and largest video-only National Hearing Center (NHC), in St. Louis, Missouri. This continues SSA's effort to use video hearings as a means to clear its substantial hearing backlog. Since 2007, the SSA has also established NHCs in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Baltimore, Maryland, Falls Church, Virginia, and Chicago, Illinois.

Impact on media relations

The concept of press videoconferencing was developed in October 2007 by the Pan African Press Association (APPA), a Paris France based non-governmental organization, to allow African journalists to participate in international press conferences on developmental and good governance issues.

Press videoconferencing permits international press conferences via videoconferencing over the Internet. Journalists can participate on an international press conference from any location, without leaving their offices or countries. They need only be seated by a computer connected to the Internet in order to ask their questions to the speaker.

In 2004, the International Monetary Fund introduced the Online Media Briefing Center, a password-protected site available only to professional journalists. The site enables the IMF to present press briefings globally and facilitates direct questions to briefers from the press. The site has been copied by other international organizations since its inception. More than 4,000 journalists worldwide are currently registered with the IMF.